دانلود با لینک مستقیم و پر سرعت .
لینک پرداخت و دانلود *پایین مطلب*
فرمت فایل:Word (قابل ویرایش و آماده پرینت)
تعداد صفحه15
This article is about the word or prefix Meta. For other uses, see Meta (disambiguation).
Meta (from Greek: μετά = "after", "beyond", "with"), is a prefix used in English in order to indicate a concept which is an abstraction from another concept, used to complete or add to the latter. The Greek meta is equivalent to the Latin post.
In epistemology, the prefix meta- is used to mean about (its own category). For example, metadata are data about data (who has produced it, when, what format the data are in and so on). Similarly, metamemory in psychology means an individual's knowledge about whether or not they would remember something if they concentrated on recalling it. Furthermore, metaemotion in psychology means an individual's emotion about his/her own basic emotion, or somebody else's basic emotion.[citation needed].
Any subject can be said to have a meta-theory, which is the theoretical consideration of its foundations and methods.
Another, slightly different interpretation of this term is "about" but not "on". For example, a grammar is considered as a metalanguage, a meta-answer is not a real answer but a reply, such as: "this is not a good question", "I suggest to ask your professor". Here, we have such concepts as meta-reasoning and meta-knowledge.
Etymology
The prefix is derived by back-formation from the Greek preposition and prefix meta- (μετά) which meant either "after", "beside" or "with". Meta- & Meso- are thought to have come into Greek together from a mutual cognate, which would further imply 'meta' to contain or be of the meaning "parallel". [1]
Quine and Hofstadter
The OED cites uses of the meta- prefix as "beyond, about" (such as meta-economics and meta-philosophy) going back to 1917. However, these formations are directly parallel to the original "metaphysics" and "metaphysical", that is, as a prefix to general nouns (fields of study) or adjectives. Going by the OED citations, it began to be used with specific nouns in connection with mathematical logic sometime before 1929. A notable early citation is Quine's 1937 use of the word "metatheorem", where meta- clearly has the modern meaning of "an X about X" (Note that earlier uses of "meta-economics" and even "metaphysics" do not have this doubled conceptual structure, they are about or beyond X but they do not constitute an X). Note also that this modern meaning allows for self-reference, since if something is about the category to which it belongs, it can be about itself; it is therefore no coincidence that we find Quine, a mathemetician interested in self-reference, using it.
An encyclopedia article which discusses an encyclopedia article (itself).
Douglas Hofstadter, in his 1979 book Gödel, Escher, Bach (and in the less-popular sequel, Metamagical Themas), popularized this meaning of the term. This book, which deals extensively with self-reference and touches on Quine and his work, was influential in many computer-related subcultures, and is probably largely responsible for the popularity of the prefix, for its use as a solo term, and for the many recent coinages which use it. Hofstadter uses the meta as a stand-alone word, both as an adjective and as a directional preposition ("going meta", a term he coins for the old rhetorical trick of taking a debate or analysis to another level of abstraction, as in "This debate isn't going anywhere."). This book is also probably responsible for the direct association of "meta" with self-reference, as opposed to just abstraction. The sentence "This sentence contains thirty six letters." along with the sentence it is embedded in are examples of sentences that reference themselves in this way.
